Jewish Terms

Abraham (adj. Abrahamic)
The patriarch who is acknowledged as a special early figure in the histories and folklore of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Presumed to have lived sometime in the period 2000-1700 BCE; father of Ishmael by Hagar and of Isaac by Sarah. See Bible Genesis 12-25; NT Galatians 3-4; Quran 37.83=113, 2.124-140, and frequently.

Adam (and Eve) (Hebrew for "human, man") Name given to the first created male (with Eve as female) in the creation story in the Jewish scriptures (Genesis 1). Has been interpreted over the centuries both literally (as an actual historical person) and symbolically (as generic humankind; see allegory).

aggada(h) (adj. aggadic; Aramaic, "telling, narration") Jewish term for non-halakic (nonlegal) matter, especially in Talmud and Midrash; includes folklore, legend, theology/theosophy, scriptural interpretations, biography, etc.; also spelled haggada(h), not to be confused, however, with the Passover Manual called "the Haggada(h)."

Akiba (or better, Aqiba) ben Joseph Famous Jewish rabbi (c. 50-135 CE) in ancient Palestine; a major legal scholar, who established an academy in Bne Brak, and was also a legendary mystic and martyr. He was tortured and killed by the Romans in 135 CE.

aliy(y)a(h) A term used in modern Judaism especially for migration (Heb., "going up") to the land of Israel (see also hajj in Islam, pilgrimage). Aliya can also be used for "going up" to the altar bimah to read from Torah.

altar Historically, it usually refers to a raised surface (like a table) or platform on which sacrifices were performed. Thus it came to designate the central location for liturgical functions such as reading Torah (Jewish; see bima) or administering the eucharist (Christian). Compare minbar.

am haaretz (pl. ammey haaretz; Heb., "people of the land") A term used in Jewish scriptures for citizens, or some particular class of citizens; in rabbinic literature, for persons or groups that dissented from or were uninstructed in rabbinic halaka and rigorous purity and tithing norms. It sometimes signifies the unlearned, sometimes is used condescendingly (boor). It was also used of the broad mass of Jewish people of the 1st century CE, who cannot be categorized into any of the sub-groups of the time. See also Pharisees.

amida(h) (Heb., "standing"; pl. amidot) The main section of rabbinic Jewish prayers, recited in a standing posture; also known as *tefillah or shemoneh esreh ("eighteen benedictions").

amora (pl. amoraim; Heb., "speaker") Rabbinic Jewish teachers of the 4th and 5th centuries CE who produced the gemara for the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds.

apocalypse (adj. apocalyptic) From the Greek, meaning "revelation." A genre of literature (attested in Jewish, Christian and Muslim traditions) in which the author claims to have received revelation(s), usually about the end -time, and expresses them in vivid symbolism. The intertestamental Jewish and the early Christian apocalypses are often pseudepigraphical. The final book of the Christian NT is sometimes called (in accord with its Greek title) "the Apocalypse" (it is also known as "the book of Revelation").

aqedah (Heb., "binding" [of Isaac]) The Jewish biblical account of God's command to Abraham to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice (Genesis 22).

Ashkenazi(m) (adj. Ashkenazic) The term now used for Jews who derive from northern Europe and who generally follow the customs originating in medieval German Judaism, in contradistinction to Sephardic Judaism, which has its distinctive roots in Spain and the Mediterranean ( see Sephardim). Originally the designation Ashkenaz referred to a people and country bordering on Armenia and the upper Euphrates; in medieval times, it came to refer to the Jewish area of settlement in northwest Europe (northern France and western Germany). By extension, it now refers to Jews of northern and eastern European background (including Russia) with their distinctive liturgical practices or religious and social customs.

Av (or Ab) A month in the Jewish calendar; the 9th of Av is a day of mourning for the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 586 BCE and again in 70 CE.

Ba'al Shem Tov (BeSHT; lit. "Master of the Good Name") Founder of mid 18th century Jewish Hasidism (proper name was Israel).

bar (bat) mitzvah (Heb., "son (daughter)-of-the-command-ment(s)")
The phrase originally referred to a person responsible for performing the divine commandments of Judaism; it now refers to the occasion when a boy or girl reaches the age of religious majority and responsibility (thirteen years for a boy; twelve years and a day for a girl). In Christianity, compare confirmation.

bat (Heb., "daughter," "daughter of"; Arabic bint) Used frequently in "matronymics" (naming by identity of mother); see also ben, *bar, ibn.

bavli Jewish shorthand term for the Babylonian Talmud.

BCE or bce = "before the common era" An attempt to use a neutral term for the period traditionally labeled "BC" (before Christ) by Christians. Thus 586 BCE is identical to 586 BC.

ben (Heb., "son," "son of"; Aramaic *bar; Arabic ibn) Used frequently in "patronymics" (naming by identity of father); Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph means Akiba son of Joseph. See also bat, bint.

berak(h)ah (Heb., "blessing"; Arabic baraka) In Judaism, an offering of thankfulness that praises God for a benefit conferred or a great event experienced (pl. berakot). See also shemonah esreh.

berit or brit (Heb., "covenant") Used in Judaism especially for the special relationship believed to exist between God and the Jewish people.

bet/beit midrash (Heb.; Arabic bayt); see also midrash, synagogue
In Judaism, a place (beit = "house") of study, discussion, and prayer; in ancient times a school of higher learning (see, for example, "house of Hillel"). Similarly, bet am ("house of people"), bet kneset ("house of assembly") and bet tefilla ("house of prayer") are designations for locations/functions that came to be included in the general term synagogue; bet din ("house of judgment") refers to a halakic law court (see also sanhedrin).

Bible (adj. biblical; from the Greek biblos meaning "book")
Designation normally used for Jewish scriptures (TaNaK = Protestant Christian "Old Testament"; plus the Apocrypha in classical Christianity) or Christian scriptures ("OT" plus the Christian "New Testament"). See also canon, Quran, Septuagint, Vulgate

bimah (from Greek beema, "altar") Location in a synagogue from which worship (see liturgy) is led. See also minbar.

birkat haminim (Heb., "(bene)diction concerning heretics")
A prayer that invoked divine wrath upon Christian Jews and other heterodox Jewish groups. 12th section of the shemoneh esre.
brit (or berit) milah (Heb., "covenant of circumcision")

calendar Judaism follows a lunar calandar adjusted every three years or so to the solar cycle (by adding a second 12th month) -- thus "lunisolar" The oldest Jewish annual observances are Passover/pesah, Shevuot, Yom Kippur and Sukkot; other ancient celebrations include Rosh ha-shana, Simhat Torah, Hannukah and Purim. See also BCE, CE, AH.

cohen See kohen. Priest (Judaism).

CE or ce = "common era" An attempt to use a neutral term for the period traditionally labeled "AD" (anno domini or "year of the Lord") by Christians. Thus 1992 CE is identical to AD 1992.

Conservative Judaism A modern development in Judaism, reacting to early Jewish Reform movements in an attempt to retain clearer links to classical Jewish law while at the same time adapting it to m odern situations. Its scholarly center in the US is the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York.

early Judaism, also sometimes called "formative," "proto-," "middle," and even "late" Judaism Refers to Judaism in the intertestamental period (and slightly later) as a development from the religion of ancient Israel, but prior to the emergence of its classical, rabbinic form in the early centuries CE.

Ebionites, Ebionism A Judeo-Christian sect (or category) in the 2nd-4th centuries CE; accepted much of Mosaic Torah (circumcision , sabbath, etc.) but rejected sacrifices; accepted Jesus/Joshua as messiah but not his divinity; some Ebionites opposed the doctrines of Paul.

ein sof (Heb., "without limit") In Jewish kabbalism, a designation for the divine -- "the unlimited one."

Eden The name of paradise in the Jewish biblical account in Genesis 1, where Adam and Eve were created.

elect In early Judaism and Christianity, refers to those considered to be chosen by God for a specific purpose; in some Christian predestinarian schemes (e.g. Calvinistic), "the elect" are those whom God has chosen (in advance) to have eternal life.

Elohim, El Hebrew general term for deity. See also YHWH

eretz Yisrael/Israel (Heb., "land of Israel") In Jewish thought, the special term for the Palestinian area believed to have been promised to the Jewish people by God in the ancient covenant.

Essenes The name of a Jewish sub-group in the 1st century CE according to Josephus, Philo and other sources. See also Qumran.

etiology (also aetiology), from the Greek for "cause or origin"
A term used to describe or label stories that claim to explain the reason for something being (or being called) what it is. For example, in the old Jewish creation story (Genesis 2.23), woman (ishshah) is given that name because she has been "taken out of (the side or rib of) man".

Exodus (from Greek "to exit or go out") Refers to the event of the Israelites leaving Egypt (see also Passover) and to the biblical book (see Pentateuch) that tells of that event.

Ezra Name of a person in the Hebrew Bible with whom the reestablishment of Judaism in Jerusalem in the 5th century BCE is associated. The events are recorded in a biblical book known by his name, and he is also associated with apocryphal books and traditions.

fast, fasting A general term for the religious rite or practice of going without food at certain times or for certain periods. See asceticism, Ramadan, sawm, Yom Kippur.

galut (Heb., "exile") The term refers to the various expulsions of Jews from the ancestral homeland. Over time, it came to express the broader notion of Jewish homelessness and state of being aliens. Thus, colloquially, "to be in galut" means to live in the diaspora and also to be in a state of physical and even spiritual alienation.

Gaon (pl. Geonim,; adj. geonic; Heb., "eminence, excellence")
A title given to the Jewish head of the Babylonian academy and then to distinguished talmudic scholars in the 6th to 12th centuries.

gemara (Heb., "completion") Popularly applied to the Jewish Talmud as a whole, to discussions by rabbinic teachers on Mishnah, and to decisions reached in these discussions. In a more restricted sense, the work of the generations of the amoraim in "completing" Mishnah to produce the Talmuds.

gematria An interpretative device in rabbinic Judaism which focuses on the numerical value of each word.

genizah (Heb., "hiding") A hiding place or storeroom, usually connected with a Jewish synagogue, for worn-out holy books. The most famous is the Cairo Genizah, which contained books and documents that provide source material for Jewish communities living under Islamic rule from about the 9th through the 12th centuries. It was discovered at the end of the 19th century.

gentile(s) (Latin for people, nation) In pre-Christian times, used to refer to non-Jewish peoples; thereafter, for non-Jewish and non-Christian (roughly synonymous with "pagan"). See also kafir.

gittin (Heb.) Jewish practice related to divorce. A get is a Jewish divorce.

God A general designation for the deity (Hebrew Elohim, Yhwh; Greek Theos; Arabic Allah).

habdalah (Heb., "separation") The Jewish ceremony using wine, spices, and candles at the conclusion of the Sabbath. Smelling the spices signifies the hope for a fragrant week; the light signifies the hope for a week of brightness and joy.

Hadassah Jewish women's zionist organization in the US.

haftara(h)/haftorah (Heb.) In Jewish liturgy, designates a specific section of the biblical prophets read in synagogue services immediately after the corresponding Torah (Pentateuch) section called the parasha(h).

haggada(h) (Heb., "narration"; see also Aramaic aggada[h]) In a general sense, in classical Jewish literature and discussion, what is not halaka (legal subject matter) is (h)aggada (pl. haggadot). Technically, "the Haggada(h)" is a liturgical manual used in the Jewish Passover Seder.

hakam (pl. hakamim or hakmim; Heb., "the wise") A Jewish title given to pre-70 CE proto-rabbinic sages/scholars and post-70 CE rabbinic scholars.

halaka(h)/halakha (adj. halakic) Any normative Jewish law, custom, practice, or rite -- or the entire complex. Halaka is law established or custom ratified by authoritative rabbinic jurists and teachers. Colloquially, if something is deemed halakic, it is considered proper and normative behavior.

halitzah A ceremony related to the Jewish Levirate law of marriage, which frees the widow to marry someone other than her husband's brother. In this ceremony the widow removes a shoe from her brother-in-law's foot, which is symbolic of removing his possessive right over her. See also levirate marriage.

Hanukka(h) (Heb., "dedication") A Jewish festival ("of lights") that commemorates the rededication of the Jerusalem temple to more *traditional modes of Jewish worship by Judah the Maccabee around 164 BCE. See also calendar.

hasidim, hasidism (Heb., "pious ones") The term may refer to Jews in various periods: (1) a group that resisted the policies of Antiochus Epiphanes in the 2nd century BCE at the start of the Maccabean revolt; (2) pietists in the 13th century; (3) followers of the movement of Hasidism founded in the first half of the 18th century by Israel Ba'al Shem Tov.

haskalah (Heb.) Jewish rationalistic "enlightenment" in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe. See maskilim, Mendelson, reform.

Hasmoneans Descendants of Hashmon, a Jewish family that included the Maccabees and the high priests and kings who ruled Judea from 142 to 63 BCE.

Hebrew (from Heb. to pass over, cross over) An old name given to the people of Israel, and also to their language.

hermeneutics Principles of interpretation (from the Greek, "to interpret, translate"). The term is often used with reference to the study of Jewish scriptures.

Herzl, Theodor German Jewish author of Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) in 1896, which served as a catalyst to the development of modern zionism.

holocaust (from Greek, entire burnt offering) A term used in recent times to refer to the Nazi German policy to exterminate the Jewish people in the second world war period.

huppah or chuppah (Heb.) In Judaism, the special canopy under which a marriage ceremony is conducted.

idolatry A Greek term for t he worship of what are perceived to be "idols" or false "gods," forbidden in the biblical traditions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

Isaac One of the Israelite patriarchs, son of Abraham and father of Jacob, in the accounts in the book of Genesis.

Israel A name given to the Jewish patriarch Jacob according to the etiology of Genesis 32.38. In Jewish biblical times, this name refers to the northern tribes, but also to the entire nation. Historically, Jews have continued to regard themselves as the true continuation of the ancient Israelite national-religious community. The term thus has a strong cultural sense. In modern times, it also refers to the political state of Israel. Christians came to consider themselves to be the "true" Israel, thus also a continuation of the ancient traditions.

Jacob One of the Israelite patriarchs, son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham, in the accounts in the book of Genesis.

Jerusalem From the religious viewpoints of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the main city in ancient Palestine (= modern Israel), where the Temple of David/Solomon had been located, Jesus/Joshua had been crucified/resurrected, Muhammad had journeyed to heaven (his miraj), among other significant things. Thus for all three religions, in some senses Jerusalem is a or the "holy city."

Jehovah Mechanical attempt to represent the special Jewish name for deity, YHWH.

Josephus or Flavius Josephus Jewish general and author in the latter part of the 1st century CE who wrote a massive history ("Antiquities") of the Jews and a detailed treatment of the Jewish revolt against Rome in 66-73 CE (and his involvement in it), among other things.

Judah the Prince (Heb., haNasi) Head of the rabbinic Jewish community in Palestine around 200 CE. Credited with publication of the Mishnah.

Judaism, Jew From the Hebrew name of the patriarch Judah, whose name also came to designate the tribe and tribal district in which Jerusalem was located. Thus the inhabitants of Judah and members of the tribe of Judah come to be called "Judahites" or, in short form, "Jews." The religious outlook associated with these people after about the 6th century BCE comes to be called "Judaism," and has varying characteristics at different times and places: see especially early Judaism, rabbinic Judaism. .

Kabala(h) or Kabbala(h) (Kabalism) (Heb. qabbala, "receiving, tradition") A system of Jewish theosophy and mysticism. See also kavanah, Zohar.
kaddish A classical Jewish prayer (mostly in Aramaic) with eschatological focus extolling God's majesty and kingdom recited at the conclusion of each major section of each liturgical service; a long version (called rabbinic kaddish) follows an act of study; also a prayer by mourners during the first year of bereavement (see shiva,*sheloshim) and on the anniversary of the death of next-of-kin. Compare the Christian "Lord's Prayer," Islam's Fatiha.

kahal (qahal) (Heb., "congregation, gathering")
Used to refer to the corporate Jewish community of medieval Europe. See also synagogue, church, umma.

Karaism, Karaites Derived from Heb. qara, "scripture." A Middle Eastern heterodox Jewish group that arose in opposition to Rabbinism in the 8th century CE, and emphasized the written scriptures while criticizing the rabbinic use of "oral law."

kavanah (Heb., "intention") A mystical instrument of the Jewish kabalists; a meditation which accompanies a ritual act.

kehilla(h) (Heb., "community") Jewish sense of community, in a particular sense, within the larger kneset Israel.

keneset Israel (Heb.) "Assembly of Israel," or the Jewish people as a whole. See kehilla; Muslim umma; compare Christian church.

ketuva(h) or ketuba(h) (Heb.) The classical Jewish religious marriage certificate. See also *get.

Ketuvim or Ketubim (Heb., "writings") The third and last division of the classical Jewish Bible (TaNaK), including large poetic and epigrammatic works such as Psalms and Proverbs and Job as well as a miscellany of other writings.

kibbutz A communal settlement in modern Israel.

kiddush (Heb., "sanctification"; derived from kadosh (qadosh), "holy")
A ritual of Jewish sabbath and other holy days, usually accompanied by a cup of wine, which proclaims the holiness of the day.

kiddushin (Heb., "consecration") Denotes Jewish betrothal for marriage, signifying the sanctity of the relationship.

kiphah A Jewish headcovering worn for worship, religious study, meals, or at any other time; also called yarmulke.

kohen or cohen (pl. kohanim; Heb.) An Israelite priest, generally descended from the tribe of Levi.

kosher (Heb., kasher) "Proper" or "ritually correct"; kashrut refers to ritually correct Jewish dietary practices. Traditional Jewish dietary laws are based on biblical legislation. Only land animals that chew the cud and have split hooves (sheep, beef; not pigs, camels) are permitted and must be slaughtered in a special way. Further, meat products may not be eaten with milk products or immediately thereafter. Of sea creatures, only those (fish) having fins and scales are permitted. Fowl is considered a meat food and also has to be slaughtered in a special manner.

law See torah, commandments, oral and written law, halaka, Shulhan Aruch, nomos, shariah, fiqh.

leaven A fermenting substance used to make bread dough rise, making it lighter with air bubbles. In Jewish ritual, leaven is not premitted at passover time, when "unleavened" bread (matzah) is a major symbol. Classical Christianity has also been influenced by this prohibition in its Easter and eucharist practices (see host).

levirite marriage From the Latin levir for the Hebrew yabam, brother-in-law; a biblical system of marriage in which the levir marries his brother's widow (Deuteronomy 25.5-10).

Lit "anointed one"; Greek christos. Ancient priests and kings (and sometimes prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. In early Judaism, the term came to mean a royal descendant of the dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of Israel and Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer figure. The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. The messianic age was believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection of human institutions; others believed it to be a time of radical new beginnings, a new heaven and earth, after divine judgment and destruction. The title came to be applied to Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers, who were soon called "Christians" in Greek and Latin usage. Jesus is also "Messiah" in Islam (e.g. Quran 3.45).

lulab The palm branch used with other plants in the Jewish Sukkot (Tabernacles) celebration.

maariv (from Heb., "evening") Jewish synagogue evening prayer or service. See also liturgy.

Maccabee(s) See Hasmoneans, hasidim, Hannuka.

maggid (Heb., "a speaker") A kabalistic notion of how the holy spirit is mediated to the mystic; later meant a preacher among the eighteenth-century Hasidim.
magen David (Heb., "shield of David")
The distinctive six-pointed Jewish star, used especially since the 17th century.

Maimonides, or Moses ben Maimon
A major medieval rabbi, physician, scientist, and philosopher (1135-1204), known by the acronym RaMBaM (Rabbi Moses ben Maimon). Born in Spain, Maimonides fled from persecution to Morocco and finally settled in Egypt. His Major works include a legal commentary on the Mishnah, a law code called Mishnah Torah, and the preeminent work of medieval Jewish rational philosophy, The Guide of the Perplexed.

Marranos An old Spanish term meaning "swine," used to execrate medieval Spanish Jews who converted to Christianity but secretly kept their Judaism.

martyr (Greek, "witness") A general term for persons who endure persecution, usually leading to death, for the sake of their religious "witness" (profession, position).

maskilim (Heb., "the enlightened ones") Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Jews who engaged in secular rationalistic studies and facilitated the acculturation of Jews to Western society; members of the haskalah.

Masoretes, Masoretic text Derived from masorah, meaning "tradition"; the Masoretes were the rabbis in ninth-century Palestine who sought to preserve the traditional text of the Bible (hence called the Masoretic text), which is still used in contemporary synagogues. The Masoretes were scholars who encouraged Bible study and attempted to achieve unlformity by establishing rules for correcting the text in matters of spelling, grammar, and pronunciation.

matzah Jewish unleavened bread used at Passover.

megillah (Heb., "scroll") Usually refers to the biblical scroll of Esther read on the festival of Purim.

melakah (Heb.) Work.

Mendelssohn, Moses (1729-86) Important German Jewish thinker whose ideas helped lay the base for Reform Judaism (see haskala).

menorah Jewish candelabrum with special religious significance; a nine-branched menorah is used at Hannukah, while the seven-branched was used in the ancient Temple.

merkabah (Heb., "chariot") The "chariot vision" was an integral element of mysticism signifying a mystical vision of divinity.

messiah Lit "anointed one"; Greek christos. Ancient priests and kings (and sometimes prophets) of Israel were anointed with oil. In early Judaism, the term came to mean a royal descendant of the dynasty of David who would restore the united kingdom of Israel and Judah and usher in an age of peace, justice and plenty; the redeemer figure. The concept developed in many directions over the centuries. The messianic age was believed by some Jews to be a time of perfection of human institutions; others believed it to be a time of radical new beginnings, a new heaven and earth, after divine judgment and destruction. The title came to be applied to Jesus/Joshua of Nazareth by his followers, who were soon called "Christians" in Greek and Latin usage. Jesus is also "Messiah" in Islam (e.g. Quran 3.45). See also Mahdi.

mezuzah (pl. mezuzot; Heb., "doorpost") A parchment scroll with selected Torah verses (Deuteronomy 6.4-9; 11.13-21) placed in a container and affixed to the exterior doorposts (at the right side of the entrance) of observant Jewish homes (see Deuteronomy 6.1-4), and sometimes also to interior doorposts of rooms. The word shaddai (almighty) usually is inscribed on the back of the container.

midrash (pl. midrashim) From Heb. darash, "to inquire," whence it comes to mean "exposition" (of scripture). Refers to the "commentary" literature developed in classical Judaism that attempts to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner. Literary Midrash may focus either on halaka, directing the Jew to specific patterns of religious practice, or on (h)aggada, dealing with theological ideas, ethical teachings, popular philosophy, imaginative exposition, legend, allegory, animal fables, etc. -- that is, whatever is not halaka.

mezuzah (pl. mezuzot; Heb., "doorpost") A parchment scroll with selected Torah verses (Deuteronomy 6.4-9; 11.13-21) placed in a container and affixed to the exterior doorposts (at the right side of the entrance) of observant Jewish homes (see Deuteronomy 6.1-4), and sometimes also to interior doorposts of rooms. The word shaddai (almighty) usually is inscribed on the back of the container.

midrash (pl. midrashim) From Heb. darash, "to inquire," whence it comes to mean "exposition" (of scripture). Refers to the "commentary" literature developed in classical Judaism that attempts to interpret Jewish scriptures in a thorough manner. Literary Midrash may focus either on halaka, directing the Jew to specific patterns of religious practice, or on (h)aggada, dealing with theological ideas, ethical teachings, popular philosophy, imaginative exposition, legend, allegory, animal fables, etc. -- that is, whatever is not halaka.

milhemet mitzvah From Heb, war of the covenant; see also jihad.

min (pl. minim; Heb.) A heretic, sectarian, or schismatic, according to classical Judaism. The term was applied both to Christians, especially Christian Jews, and to people of "gnostic" tendencies, among others; see birkat.

mincha(h) (from Heb. for afternoon sacrifice) Afternoon prayers in Jewish synagogue.

minyan A quorum of ten Jews (for Orthodox Jews, ten males) above age thirteen necessary for public services and certain other religious ceremonies to be considered valid.

miqvah or mikveh (Heb.) A Jewish communal bath (like baptism) for washing away ritual impurity by immersion.

Mishnah (Heb., "teaching") The digest of the recommended Jewish oral halaka as it existed at the end of the 2nd century and was collated, edited, and revised by Rabbi Judah the Prince. The code is divided into six major units and sixty-three minor ones. The work is the authoritative legal tradition of the early *sages and is the basis of the legal discussions of t he Talmud. See also pilpul.

mitnaged (pl. mitnagaim; Heb., "opposer(s)") Traditionalist and rationalistic Jewish opponents of eighteenth-century Jewish Hasidism.

mitzvah (pl. mitzvot; Heb., "commandment, obligation") A ritual or ethical duty or act of obedience to God's will. See also commandments.

Moses The great biblical personality (c. thirteenth century BCE) who is credited with leading the people of Israel out of Egyptian bondage and teaching them the divine laws at Sinai. He is also described as first of the Jewish prophets. Throughout Jewish history he is the exalted man of faith and leadership without peer.

nabi or navi (Heb., pl. nebiim; also Arabic) A "prophet" in ancient Israel; also in Islam. Muhammad is the Muslim nabi par exellence (see also rasul). "Nevi'im" (or Nebiim) became a designation for a section of the Jewish scriptures; see TaNaK.

nomos (pl. nomoi) A Greek term meaning "law" that comes to be used in similar senses to "torah", referring to the Pentateuch, all of Jewish scripture, and even proto-rabbinic halaka; an expert in nomos is termed a nomikos.

omer (Heb., "sheaf") In Judaism, the sheaf of grain offering brought to the temple during Passover, on Nisan 16; thus also the name of the seven-week period between Passover/Pesah and Shabuot also known as the Sephirah. See also calendar.

oral law In traditional Jewish pharisaic/rabbinic thought, God reveals instructions for living through both the written scriptures and through a parallel process of orally transmitted traditions. Critics of this approach within Judaism include Sadducees and Karaites.

orthopraxy (Greek, "correct action/activity") In contrast to orthodoxy (right belief), the emphasis in this term concerns conduct, both ethical and liturgical. Historically, Judaism and Islam have tended to emphasize orthopraxy relatively more than orthodoxy, while classical Christianity tended to shift the balance in the other direction.

pagan (from Latin for villiage peasant) In a general sense, neither Jewish nor Christian (nor Muslim), traditionally with negative connotations (an irreligious person, heathen); see gentile, kafir. The term also has come to be adopted by some modern persons or movements that dissociate themselves from the "Judeo-Christian" tradition.

Palestine (Greek form representing "Philistines," for the seacoast population encountered by early geographers) An ancient designation for the area between Syria (to the north) and Egypt (to the south), between the Mediterranean Sea and the River Jordan; roughly, modern Israel.

paradise (Greek, "park, garden"; possibly derived from Heb. pardes)
Term used to describe the location of the creation of humankind (see garden of Eden) as well as the destination where those favored by God will ultimately arrive (especially in Islam). Also used in apocalyptic texts for one of the heavens or levels above the inhabited earth, near God.

parasha(h) (Heb., "section") Prescribed weekly section of biblical Torah (Pentateuch) read in Jewish synagogue liturgy (ordinarily on an annual cycle). See haftarah.

pareve, or parve (Yiddish) A Yiddish word identifying food that is neither milk nor meat. According to Jewish halakhah, foods that are pareve may be eaten with either dairy or meat. It now has the added connotation of bland or neutral.

Passover (Hebrew pesah) The major Jewish spring holiday (with agricultural aspects) also known as hag hamatzot (festival of unleavened bread,azyma) commemorating the Exodus or deliverance of the Hebrew people from Egypt (see Exodus 12-13). The festival lasts eight days, during which Jews refrain from eating all leavened foods and products. A special ritual meal (called the Seder) is prepared, and a traditional narrative (called the Haggadah), supplemented by hymns and songs, marks the event. See calendar, liturgy; also Christian Easter.

Pentateuch (from Greek for "five books/scrolls") The five books attributed to Moses: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy; known in Jewish tradition as Torat Mosheh (the teaching of Moses), or simply the Torah.

Perushim See Pharisees.

Pesach See Passover, calendar.

Pharisees (Hebrew perushim, lit. "separatists" (?); adj. pharisaic)
The name given to a group or movement in early Judaism, the origin and nature of which is unclear. Many scholars identify them with the later sages and rabbis who taught the oral and written law; Sigal and some others see them as a complex of pietistic and zealous separatists, distinct from the proto-rabbis. According to Josephus (see also NT), the Pharisees believed in the immortality of souls and resurrection of the dead, in a balance between predestination and free will, in angels as active divine agents, and in authoritative oral law. In the early Christian materials, Pharisees are often depicted as leading opponents of Jesus/Joshua and his followers, and are often linked with "scribes" but distinguished from the Sadducees.

pilpul Dialectical rational method of studying Jewish oral law as codified in the Talmud(s).

Pittsburg Platform Early statement of American Reform Jewish principles. See class handout.

pogrom From the Russian word for "devastation"; an unprovoked attack or series of attacks upon a Jewish community.

prophet (from Greek, to "speak for" or "speak forth") Name given to accepted spokespersons of God (or their opposites, "false prophets"). Became a designation for a section of the Jewish scriptures; see nabi, rasul, TaNaK.

Purim (see also, megillah) A Jewish festival commemorating the deliverance of Jews in Persia as described in the biblical book of Esther. Held in late winter (between Hannukah and Passover), on the 14th of Adar. See calendar.

Qumran or Khirbet Qumran The site near the northwest corner of the Dead Sea in modern Israel (west bank) where the main bulk of the Jewish "Dead Sea Scrolls" were discovered abound 1946. The "Qumran community" that apparently produced the scrolls seems to have flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, and is usually identified with the Jewish Essenes, or a group like them.

rabbi (adj. rabbinic) Hebrew, "my master," an authorized teacher of the classical Jewish tradition (see oral law) after the fall of the second Temple in 70 CE. The role of the rabbi has changed considerably throughout the centuries. Traditionally, rabbis serve as the legal and spiritual guides of their congregations and communities. The title is conferred after considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its responsibilities is central to the chain of tradition in Judaism.

RaSHI Acronym for Rabbi Solomon (= Sholomo) ben Isaac (1040-1105), a great medieval sage of Troyes, France. He is the author of fundamental commentaries on the Talmud, and one of the most beloved and influential commentaries on the Bible. Characterized by great lucidity and pedagogy, his comments emphasized the plain, straightforward sense of a text.

rebbe The title of the spiritual leader of the Hasidim; see zaddik.

Rechabites A dissenting movement in ancient Israel generally devoted to certain ascetic practices and a simple lifestyle (see Jeremiah 35.1-19).

Reconstructionist Judaism Founded by Mordecai M. Kaplan (1881-1982), this represents a recent development in American Judaism, and attempts to focus on Judaism as a civilization and culture constantly adapting to insure survival in a natural social process. The central academic institution is the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College in the Philadelphia suburbs. See also Reform and Conservative Judaism.

redactor An editor, especially with reference to ancient books such as the Jewish and Christian scriptures.

Reform Judaism Modern movement originating in 18th century Europe that attempts to see Judaism as a rational religion adaptable to modern needs and sensitivities. The ancient traditions and laws are historical relics that need have no binding power over modern Jews. See Pittsburg Platform, Geiger. The central academic institution of American Reform Judaism is the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, and it is represented also by the Central Conference of American Rabbis. Compare Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism.

responsa Also called teshubot, from sheelot uteshubot (questions and answers); answers to questions on halaka and observances, given by Jewish scholars on topics addressed to them. They originated during the geonic period, and are still used as a means of modern updating and revision of halaka. See also fatwa.

Rosh Hashanah (Heb., "beginning of the year") Jewish New Year celebration in the fall of the year, the month of Tishri. See also calendar.

Rosh Hodesh (Heb., "beginning of a lunar month") The New Moon Festival. See also calendar.

Sabbath The seventh day of the week (Heb., shabbat), recalling the completion of the creation and the Exodus from Egypt. It is a day symbolic of new beginnings and one dedicated to God, a most holy day of rest. The commandment of rest is found in the Bible and has been elaborated by the rabbis. It is a special duty to study Torah on the Sabbath and to be joyful. Sabbaths near major festivals (see calendar) are known by special names.

Sadducees An early Jewish sub-group whose origins and ideas are uncertain. It probably arose early in the 2nd century BCE and ceased to exist when the Temple was destroyed in 70 CE. Sadducees supported priestly authority and rejected traditions not directly grounded in the Pentateuch, such as the concept of personal, individual life after death. They are often depicted as in conflict with the Pharisees.

Samaritans Another of the numerous sub-groups in early Judaism (see also Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes) and residents of the district of Samaria north of Jerusalem and Judah in what is now Israel. They are said to have recognized only the Pentateuch as scripture and Mt. Gerizim as the sacred center rather than Jerusalem. There was ongoing hostility between Samaritans and Judahites. Samaritan communities exist to the present.

Sanhedrin (from Greek for "assembly" [of persons seated together]; see also synagogue, church) A legislative and judicial body from the period of early Judaism and into rabbinic times. Traditionally composed of 71 members.

Satan (Hebrew, "accuser/adversary") The opponent of God (or of God's supporters) in Hebrew tradition (and thence into Christianity and Islam) who is often depicted as a fallen angel (also called "the Devil"; in Arabic Iblis) amd is considered to be in charge of evil and its influences (with "demons" as his aides), and to rule over Hell until the final judgment.

seder (Heb., for "order"; pl. sedarim) The traditional Jewish evening service and opening of the celebration of Passover, which includes special food symbols and narratives. The order of the service is highly regulated, and the traditional narrative is known as the Passover Haggadah. Also one of the six divisions of the Mishna; or one of the 154 sections into which Torah/Pentateuch is divided for a three year cycle of liturgical readings in synagogue. See also siddur.

semikah (Heb.) Rabbinic ordination.

Sephardim (adj. Sephardic; Heb., Sephardi) The designation Sepharad in biblical times refers to a colony of exiles from Jerusalem (Obadiah 20), possibly in or near Sardis{??}; in the medieval period, Sephardi(c) Jews are those descended from those who lived in Spain and Portugal (the Iberian peninsula) before the expulsion of 1492. As a cultural designation, the term refers to the complex associated with Jews of this region and its related diaspora in the Balkans and Middle East (especially in Islamic countries). The term is used in contradistinction to Ashkenazi, but it does not refer, thereby, to all Jews of non-Ashkenazi origin.

sephira(h) or sefira (Heb., "counting, number"; pl. sefirot) See also omer. In Jewish kabala, the sefirot are the primary emanations or manifistations of deity that together make up the fullness (pleroma) of the godhead.
Septuagint Strictly speaking, refers to the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch, probably made during the reign of Ptolemy II, Greek ruler of Egypt around 250 BCE. Subsequently, Greek translations of other portions of the Jewish scriptures came to be added to the corpus, and the term Septuagint was applied to the entire collection. Such collections served as the "scriptures" for Greek speaking Jews and Christians.

Seveners or Ismailis One of the more influential Shiite groups, emphasizing secrecy and certain gnostical ideas. Split off from the main Shiite stream (see twelvers) at the 7th generation of recognized successive leaders, in 765 CE. See also `Alawi^s, Druzes.

shabbat (Heb., "rest") The Sabbath.

Shabbatai Zvi See Sabbatianism.

Shavuot/Shabuot (Pentecost; Heb., "weeks")Observed 50 days from the day the first sheaf of grain was offered to the priest; also known as Festival of First Fruits. See calendar.

Shekinah Jewish term for the divine presence; the Holy Spirit. In Kabalism it sometimes took on the aspect of the feminine element in deity.

Shema (Heb., "hear") Title of the fundamental, monotheistic statement of Judaism, found in Deut. 6:4 ("Hear, O Israel, the LORD is our God, the LORD is One"; shema Yisrael YHWH elohenu YHWH ehad. This statement avers the unity of God, and is recited daily in the liturgy (along with Deut. 6:5-9, 11.13-21; Num. 15.37-41 and other passages), and customarily before sleep at night. This proclamation also climaxes special liturgies (like Yom Kippur), and is central to the confession before death and the ritual of martyrdom. The Shema is inscribed on the mezuzah and the tefillin. In public services, it is recited in unison.

Shemini Atzeret (the Eighth Day of Assembly) An eight-day festival that immediately follows the seven-day festival of Sukkot (Tabernacles). See also calendar.

shemoneh esreh (Heb., "eighteen") The main section of Jewish prayers recited in a standing position (see amida) and containing 19 (yes!) "benedictions": praise to (1) God of the fathers/patriarchs, (2) God's power and (3) holiness; prayers for (4) knowledge, (5) repentance, (6) forgiveness, (7) redemption, (8) healing sick persons, (9) agricultural prosperity, (10) ingathering the diaspora, (11) righteous judgment, (12) punishment of wicked and heretics (birkat haminim, (13) reward of pious, (14) rebuilding Jerusalem, (15) restoration of royal house of David, (16) acceptance of prayers, (17) thanks to God, (18) restoration of Temple worship, and (19) peace.

sheol (Heb.) Place of departed dead in (some) ancient Israel thought, without reference to punishments and rewards. See also hell, heaven.

shiva (Heb., "seven") Seven days of mourning after the burial of a close relative (as in, "to sit shiva"). See also abelut, shloshim.

shloshim (Heb., "thirty") An intermediate stage of 30 days of less severe mourning, including shiva.

shofar In Jewish worship, Ram's horn sounded at Rosh Hashanah morning worship and at the conclusion of Yom Kippur, as well as other times in that period during the fall.

Shulhan Aruch (Heb., "prepared table") A code of Jewish law attributed to Joseph Karo in 1565 CE, which became authoritative for classical Judaism.

siddur (from Heb., to order) Jewish prayer book used for all days except special holidays (see seder). See also liturgy.

Simhat Torah (Heb., "rejoicing with the Torah") A festival which celebrates the conclusion of the annual reading cycle of the Torah. See calendar.

sopher or sofer (pl. sopherim; Heb., "scribe") Used as a general designation for scholars and copyists in both talmudic and later literature; a "scholastic," a learned researcher whose vocation was the study and teaching of the tradition. In early times the sopher was the scholar. By the 1st century he was no longer a real scholar but a functionary and teacher of children.

Sukkot (Tabernacles) (Heb., "booths, tabernacles") Seven-day Jewish fall festival beginning on Tishri 15 commemorating the sukkot where Israel lived in the wilderness after the Exodus;the Festival of Ingathering (of the harvest). See also calendar.

synagogue (Greek for "gathering") The central insitution of Jewish communal worship and study since antiquity (see also bet midrash), and by extension, a term used for the place of gathering. The structure of such buildings has changed, though in all cases the ark containing the Torah scrolls faces the ancient Temple site in Jerusalem.

Targum (Heb., "translation, interpretation") Generally used to designate Aramaic translations of the Jewish scriptures. See also Septuagint (in a sense, Greek Targums).

temple In the ancient world, temples were the centers of outward religious life, places at which public religious observances were normally conducted by the priestly professionals. In traditional Judaism, the only legitimate Temple was the one in Jerusalem, built first by king Solomon around 950 BCE, destroyed by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar around 587/6 BCE, and rebuilt about 70 years later. It was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. The site of the ancient Jewish Temple is now occupied, in part, by the golden domed "Dome of the Rock" Mosque. In recent times, "temple" has come to be used synonymously with synagogue in some Jewish usage.

testament Term for an agreement between two (or more) parties, such as a "last will and testament." In Jewish tradition, the covenant concept played an important role, and was translated as "testament," especially in Christian references to the scriptures of the "old covenant" (OT) and the "new" (NT).

tetragrammaton (Greek, "four lettered [name]") See YHWH.

thirteen principles Statement of classical Jewish outlook (see belief) by Maimonides. See handout for details.
Torah, torah (Heb., "teaching, instruction") In general, torah refers to study of the whole gamut of Jewish tradition or to some aspect thereof. In its special sense, "the Torah" refers to the "five books of Moses" in the Hebrew scriptures (see Pentateuch). In the Quran, "Torah" is the main term by which Jewish scripture is identified.

Tosefta (pl. Tosafot) (Heb., "supplement") Tannaitic supplements to the Mishnah. Called <h>beraita</> (extraneous material) in the Talmud.

yeshivah (pl. yeshivot) A Jewish rabbinic academy of higher learning. See also beit midrash.

yetzer A technical Heb. term for human "inclination" to do good (yetzer ha-tov) or to do evil (yetzer ha-ra).

YHWH (Yahweh) The sacred name of God in Jewish scriptures and tradition; also known as the tetragrammaton. Since Hebrew was written without vowels in ancient times, the four consonants YHWH contain no clue to their original pronunciation. They are generally rendered "Yahweh" in contemporary scholarship. In traditional Judaism, the name is not pronounced, but <h>Adonai</> ("Lord") or something similar is substituted. In most English versions of the Bible the tetragrammaton is represented by "LORD" (or less frequently, "Jehovah").

Yiddish (from German "Juedisch" or Jewish) The vernacular of Ashkenazic Jews; it is a combination of several languages, especially Hebrew and German, written in Hebrew script.

yigdol/yigdal (from Heb., to be great; thence "Great is he") A hymn/chant/poem from 11th century or earlier, frequently found at the beginning or end of the Jewish prayer book (siddur). Also found as an adopted Christian hymn.

Yom Kippur (Heb., "Day of Atonement") Annual day of fasting and atonement, occurring in the fall on Tishri 10 (just after Rosh Hashanah); the most solemn and important occasion of the Jewish religious year. See also calendar.

zaddik (Heb., "righteous one") A general term for a righteous person in Jewish tradition. More specifically, the spiritual leader of the modern Hasidim, popularly known as rebbe. See also saint.

zedakah (Heb., "righteousness"; see tzedakah) Term in Judaism usually applied to deeds of charity and philanthropy.

Zion, Zionism (Mount) Zion is an ancient Hebrew designation for Jerusalem, but already in biblical times it began to symbolize the national homeland (see e.g. Psalm 137.1-6). In this latter sense it served as a focus for Jewish national-religious hopes of renewal over the centuries. Ancient hopes and attachments to Zion gave rise to Zionist longings and movements since antiquity, culminating in the modern national liberation movement of that name. The Zionist cause helped the Jews return to Palestine in this century and found the state of Israel in 1948. The goal of Zionism is the political and spititual renewal of the Jewish people in its ancestral homeland. See also Herzl.

Zohar "Book of Splendor"; the chief literary work of the kabalists. The author of the main part of the Zohar was Moses de Leon (12th century) in Spain, but it is pseudepigraphically ascribed to the Palestinian tanna Simeon bar Yohai (2nd century CE), sometimes called RaShBaY (Rabbi Shimeon bar Yohai).

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